De-institutionalisation
! Understanding communities
!
Dysfunctional communities !
Building better
communities
Understanding
disability service organisations ! An alternative model ! Community research ! Community survey
Understanding
communities
Communities are as varied and
individual as its members. Often people belong to two or more
communities. Family, education, business, work, sport, religious,
ethnic all
involve communities that we take for granted as a normal part of our
lives. They seem to be a part of the background. It’s only when things
are not going the way that we want, that we take any notice of them.
Most people think of communities as the suburb or city that they live
in, however communities are much more that that. They are the very
essence of how we live and socialise
with others. We have our own personal communities, the communities that
we are a part of and the communities that we associate with.
Communities are the building blocks that allow us to make sense of the
world in which we live, participate and share experiences. They provide
a sense of identity and purpose, a sense
of being a part of and belonging.
Understanding
communities
(Top)
Any activity that we participate in, usually involves others in groups
or
teams that have the same interests.
So, what is a community, and how is it different from a
group or a team?
I feel it is important to explore the various ways people
come together for a common cause or purpose:
At a football match, for
example, people come together for a purpose: to participate in the game
as, 1)
a spectator, or 2) a player or 3) umpires. It is immediately obvious
that there are
some
fundamental differences in the individual members of the group that are
participating.
A collection of people in a
restaurant participate as, 1)
a staff member, or 2) a customer, and can become a group / team, or a
number of groups / teams,
when there is
some common
cause or purpose for which individual members become interdependent
upon each
other. A disaster (such as a fire or flood), quiz or competition etc,
can be
the catalyst in transforming the individuals into groups or
teams.
In a factory, a group of people
work toward a common cause and share rescources, facilities etc,
between each other. However
individuals in the group are not necessarily working as a team.
At a school or club, people come together as a group for a common
cause, they share interests and participate in the activities of the
school or club. Organisations are groups of people: 1) staff who work
towards a common goal and may work as teams, and 2) clients that may
share interests or
participate in common activities. Suburbs are groups of people that do
not necessarily share interests or
participate in common activities.
A group of people may share a particular characteristic that
distinguishes themselves from others (minority groups), such as wealth
(or lack of), culture or ethnicity, or have a particular physical or
medical
condition that disadvantages their ability to participate in the
community.
They generally rely on support from each other or support networks and
share interests or
participate in common activities.
Any group of people that live together,
whether it is a home with 4 or 5 residents, a group of units, a
boarding house, a hostel or nursing home. The residents may share
the same
characteristicts and have the same needs. The residents may communicate
with each other and may be supported by staff that are employed by a
community service or organisation.
In a family, the members may have strong bonds to each other and share
interests or
participate in common activities, but at the same time are involved
with other groups that have different interests and activities.
The above shows that groups and teams can be spontaneous or planned,
formal or informal. Depending on the situation, the members of the
group can just arrive on impulse, or arrange with each other to be at a
certain place at a certain time. It can also be seen that the members
of one group do not necessarily have to be a part of or belong to the
other groups, At the football, for example, there are three distinct
groups; the spectators and the players and umpires, but together they
are all there for a purpose; to participate in the game. They all
participate at the oval, identify with and support each other,
communicate and share their feelings and knowledge, and act within a
set of informal / formal rules, laws,
ethics, customs etc. Even though the settings, members and activities
are different in the other examples above, they also contain the same
elements:
Characteristics of groups: (
What
are the characteristics of a group)
... Members share interests or
participate in common activities,
... Informal / formal rules, laws,
ethics, customs etc
... They identify with one another, or share common characteristics or
behaviours,
... They share values, knowledge, skills, resources,
... They feel a sense of collective responsibility, achievement and
security;
... They act in a unified way towards a common objective,
... Define themselves, and are seen, as members of the group,
... May contain groups or teams within the group.
So, what distinguishes a team from a group?
A team is a group of people
that come
together for a particular reason, common
cause or purpose. John K. Brilhart [
1]
lists five important elements of a team, which
distinguishes itself from
a group.
These
are:
1.
A number of people
sufficiently small for each to be aware of and have some reaction to
each
other.
2.
A mutually
interdependent purpose in which the success of each is contingent upon
the
success of others in achieving this goal.
3.
Each person has a
sense of belonging or membership, identifying himself with the other
members of
the group.
4.
Oral interaction
(not all of the interaction will be oral, but a significant
characteristic of a
group is reciprocal influence exercised by talking).
5.
Behaviour based on
norms and procedures accepted by all members.
Larson and LaFatso (1989, p.19) define
a team as:
A
team has two or more people: it has a specific performance objective or
recognisable goal to be obtained: and coordination of activity among
the
members of the team is required for the attainment of the team goal or
objective.
It can
be
seen that the players in the football game are teams, where their
performance determines the outcome of the game. Or at the restaurant
where the cooks and waiters work as teams in satisfying the needs of
the customers. They have to coordinate their activities to achieve a
desired outcome.
Characteristics
of teams:
... Generally a group (or groups)
within the group
that specialise in, or focus on a specific task.
... Shared identity and purpose.
... Clearly defined goals and objectives.
... Formal / informal rules, laws, ethics, customs etc.
... Coordinated activities to achieve a desired outcome
... May contain groups or teams within the team.
So,
what is a community?
The definitions of communities (
Wikipedia) are as
varied as the
communities themselves. I prefer to think of communities as being
generally organised in a setting where all members have the opportunity
to participate in, share skills and experiences, and work towards a
common goal. It
could then be argued that at a football match,
restaurant, working in a factory, or living in a suburb the members are
actively
participating as
a community because:
There are common elements within the
group that make it a community:
... Define themselves, and are seen, as
members of the community.
... The members feel connected to each other and are interdependent
on
each other for various reasons.
... Members are motivated / work towards achieving a desired outcome.
... The members are expected to behave according to formal /
informal rules, laws, ethics, customs etc.
... Value (there is a sense of worth in) the activities of the other
members.
... The members communicate with each other.
... The members share resources etc
... Generally contain groups that share interests or
participate in common activities.
... Generally contain teams within the groups that are directed towards
achieving a
specific task or objective of the group.
Etc
Groups, teams and communities are all
about relationships, and the way
we
relate to each other in different circumstances. How we comminicate to
each other, and behave towards each other depends on our own personal
rescources (what we have, and what we can bring, or contribute to the
relationship), our relationships to each other, the environment and the
activity.
It is important to understand communities on three different levels;
our
own personal communities, the communities that we participate in and
the communities that we associate with.
While these are seperate communities, they are interdependent on
each other in as much as they provide the structure which
determines how we see ourselves and the world around us. They define
our own identity and roles and the identity and roles of others:
... personal communities (Private,
Personal, Public):
how we define
our relationships to each other,
... communities that we are a part of (Social): the communities that
provide a
sense of belonging, security, shared interests and relationships,
... communities we associate with (Public): the communities that we
participate
in but do not belong to.
Personal
communities
(Top)
Personal communities are about relationships and how we define those
relationships (
Circles of
friendship).
Pahl
and Spencer describe personal communities as a mix of relationships
(High or low) and commitment (High or low):
"In
the hope of introducing some
conceptual clarity we see the issue as being aboutsome kind of social
shift between
those relationships that are given (primarily, but notnecessarily exclusively, through
kinship ties) and those relationships that are chosen which, again, may include both kin
and non-kin. A further significant distinction maybe made between those ties that
involve high or low commitment."
I prefer to think of personal communities as of a mix of private
(intimate / high value and commitment) relationships, personal
(moderate / medium value and commitment)
relationships and public
(social / low value and commitment) relationships.
... People in the
private community are
people we
trust and rely on and share our intimate thoughts with. They are
generally family but could be others that are cared about, or replace
the family where the person does not have a family. They could be
significant others in the persons life where there is a strong sense of
bonding to the person. Role models are a good example of where a
significant person in the community can become the centre of attention
(focus) of a persons life to the extent that the role model takes over
the persons life. The faults and imperfections of others in this
community are often ignored.
... People in the
personal community are people that we know personally and share common
interests or activities with. They can be work colleagues, team member,
school friends etc. They could be the boss, or someone we want to
impress, but are generally our peers that we like to
associate with. We share our dreams, hopes and disappointments and look
to each other for support. Can also be others that we admire and
respect. The relationship to the person is more
important than the faults and imperfections of the person.
... People in the public
community would be others that
we do not know personally or only see on social occasions such as
meetings at the shops or on holidays etc. These people are not valued
as much as the members of our private or personal community in a sense
that they are less likely to be called upon in
times of need or when we want to celebrate a special occasion or to
impress. Can also be people we dont like.
Shows how the relationships are
valued within the personal communities.
Our personal
communities are not the
same as the communities that
we
are a part of or associate with, although there may be some common
elements in our own
personal communities with these communities. Even in a family
the members would see each other according to their
relationship with the others. For example, the father may see his
second wife as a part of his private community, and the children of the
first marrage may see the person as
a part of their personal community. There has been a lot written about
adopted families and how the members relate to each other. At work, we
all place different values on our relationships to the others and place
them in the respective personal community. The internet is also
redefining peoples personal communities just as the automible,
telephone, CB radio and other forms of communication did in the past:
Depending on the
circumstances people can move from one community to another. A family
member or work mate, for example, would be included in our
private community if there was a strong bond to the person, or, would
be moved to our public community if
there was some friction or conflict in the relationship.
The value we put on our relationships are generally
determined acording to:
Our relationship to, and experiences
with others
The amount of investment we have in the relationship
Our own personal needs and expectations at a particular time
The needs and expectations of the others at a
particular time
Disadvantaged or marginalised people
often have limited or no
opportunity to develop any personal communities. They generally have
no choice in the matter as the nature of the disadvantage (may be a
physical, intellectual disability, a drug dependency or any other
characteristic) limits their ability to develop social networks.
People often end up in street gangs etc, not because they want to live
that life, but because they need the security and sense of belonging
that is provided. They are often abused etc, but stay because there is
often nowhere else to go.
Social communities
(Top)
The communities that we belong to. They provide security and an
opportunity to share experiences. We may belong to a football club, a
political party or an ethnic group and be a part of those communities.
People we know personally at work,
recreation, school etc may also be a part of our social community.
People with an intellectual or physical disability often have these
communities defined for them. They generally mix with the same staff,
residents, others with the same characreristicts.
People in the social community could also include people we do not like
or associate with (they are assigned a different position in our
personal community).
These people are often people we have to associate with, and may say
one thing to the person (how wonderful they are etc) and quite the
opposite to others about the person (that person is %$@## etc). There
may be some form of conflict, envy or jealousy etc in the relationship.
Public
communities
(Top)
When we go shopping, to a football game, to work
or even to hospital, we are temporarily a part of that community, and
we have our own community to return to. We may recognise others (sales
staff, other workers, and other people we meet on a casual basis) and
say "hellow" to etc, but these relationships are on a
temporary
basis and there is no deeper or permanent attachment.
Often we associate with other communities that are not our own. On a
holiday for example, we visit other communities that are forign. We do
not speak the language or understand the customs and cultures of the
communtiy. The same thing happens in our own community. The Aboriginal,
Chinese, Muslems, Greeks as well as the blind and the deaf
etc often see themselves as comminities in their own right. We also see
street groups, bikie groups, and other comminity groups that have their
own behaviours, cultures, institutions etc. If I want to be a part of
these communities I have to learn the behaviours, cultures,
institutions
etc of the community.
People in the public community could also be a part of our
personal/private community. Role models etc are people we admire and
respect although we have never met them.
Communities
within communities
(Top)
Within most communities there are communities (sub groups) that share
certain characteristics.
People generally socialise with others that have the same
… Shared characteristics such as
culture, age or gender: people identify more
with others
their own age etc.
… Roles: teachers generally socialise with teachers and students
generally socialise with students.
… Goals / Interests / Behaviours: people identify more with others that
have
shared goals, interests or behaviours.
… Religion or culture.
Within a suburb we see all sorts of communities that share and compete
for various resources. There are sporting, elderly, professional,
administrative, service comunities etc, that generally work together to
provide for the needs of its members. When looking at the
characteristics of a community, any other
communities that are a part of the community need to be considered. How
do the characteristics of each community enhance, or conflict with
the other communities of which they are a part. A football ground is
going to be built in a suburb. Which communities will benefit and which
communities will suffer? Would the resources be better used in
providing another type of facility for the community? Would the
football ground be better located in another community?
With the introduction of new technologies and population growth,
communities are becomming less isolated and more dependant on other
communities. The expression "World Community" is becomming more
relevant today where the actions on one community has greater effects
on other communities. Climate change, free trede, oil prices etc are
examples of how comunities need to find sollutions to issues on a
global scale. Even in Australia, we see events such as the drying up of
the Murry river having an impact on how the respective communities see
themselves and interact with the other affected communities.
Companies and businesses are also having to redefine their roles within
the wider community. Mining and industrial companies are required to
operate in a more socially responsible way in supporting there own
employees as well as the other communities that may be involved. Just
as in Japan, where companies provide a whole of life approach to
supporting their employees, Australian companies are creating whole
communities where the members are a part of the community as well as
the wider community.
Minority groups
(Minortiy groups,
Model minority,
Dominant minority)
(Top)
"Sociologist Louis Wirth defined a
minority group as "a group of people who, because of their physical or
cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live
for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard
themselves as objects of collective discrimination."[3]
This definition includes both objective and subjective
criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively ascribed by
society, based on an individual's physical or behavioral
characteristics; it is also subjectively applied by its members, who
may use their status as the basis of group identity or solidarity.
In any case, minority group status is categorical in nature: an
individual who exhibits the physical or behavioral characteristics of a
given minority group will be accorded the status of that group and be
subject to the same treatment as other members of that group." (Sociology
of minority groups)
Minority groups are about groups of people that see them selves, or are
seen, as having a particular characteristic
that is different from what is
considered as the social norm. Minority groups are not about size, but
more about the characteristic of the group being at the extreme ends of
the social scale of the community in which they participate
(
marginalised).
Minority groups are not about
size, but more about the charasteristic of the group being at the
extreem ends of the social scale of the community in which they
participate.
Individuals that are at the ends of the social scale tend to be
marginalised because:
1) Communities can become conditioned
to behave a certain way. There are
numerous examples where the patterns of behaviour within a community
have
been influenced by a person, event or activity that involves the whole
community. They can happen in a short time, or over a period of
generations. The attack on the World Trade Centre is a good example
where community attitudes and behaviours were changed in a day. The
motor car, the
telephone, internet and other forms of communication have also changed
the way communities behave. We also see the creation of new communities
and
cultures built around cult figures, ideologies, music etc. Communities
can change with each new generation where young people find their
own identities, they develop their own language, cultures and customes
that are unfamular to older generations. We see communities that have
to adapt to the changing landscape. The RSL was formed to support
solders returned from the great wars. With the numbers of solders
getting smaller each year the RSL is having to find new ways of staying
relevant to the community as a whole. Religous communities are also
having to look new ways they can stay in touch with the changing
needs of their members.
Communities can also change in a subtle way that is not recognised
until the transformation has happened. These changes can affect whole
communities or communities within communities where members grow up in
families and
environments, and learn particular ways of thinking, they learn the
behaviours, values and roles of their peers. New generations live in
communities that are consumer orientated (consumer societies). Why do
it your self when you can purchase it? We loose the skills and
knowledge to be self sufficent, we see the advertising and become
conditioned to a belief that a product is better for us. While the
motor car has opened new horizons, we have become dependant on it in
almost every aspact of our lives. Governments have also contributed to
the reconstruction of communities by becomming service providers or
regulating service sectors. There is a great deal of debate about the
role of governments in todays society. Just as communities of 2nd
and 3rd generation unemployed in England and
Europe have lost the skills to actively engage in a productive work
culture (Their parents and others have not provided the necessary roles
- getting up to go to work etc), and therefore depend (are dependant)
on social welfare, so too, communities have lost the skills (or never
had them) in providing for the needs of people that have a physical or
intellectual disability. The current generation is growing up in a
society where service providers provide direct intervention
in the care of people with disability and the community
supports these activities. They see the ads, read the literature. Their
families and peers strengthen this culture and so it becomes the social
norm.
2) They are generally outside the
experiences of the other members of the community.
Anything that is different to what is expected will elicit a negative
response; I dont know how to deal with the situation, or I dont want to
deal with this situation, or someone else can deal with this situation,
or a conditioned response that has been successful in the past, or
learned from other members, or passed down from generation to
generation and embedded into the culture.
Comunities can also be suspicious of anything new or different. The
beliefs, values, cultures and behaviours (institutions) are valued as a
part of the community and anything that comes along that challenges
these institutions will be resisted. Muslems for example bring their
traditions with them and expect everyone else to respect them. They
live and participate in the community but find that
3) Communities generally cater for the community as a whole, rather
than meeting individual needs.
When designing facilities, services or activities for the community, it
is impracticable to measure everyone in the community, so a standard is
used that takes into account the averages of its members. Buildings are
built to a standard, services are designed to meet certain criteria,
education and recreational activities are designed around the average
person. Any one outside these averages will be disadvantaged. My mother
is fairly independent, but restricted to a wheel chair, and simple
things like going to the movies etc become a logistical headache. I
know that when I buy a pair of pants or a shirt my size it may take me
a while to find the right size because one size in one brand is not the
same fit in
another brand (too big or small). I find the whole process frustrating,
and can somewhat imagine what it would be like for someone with a
severe physical disability to go throughout their whole life like that.
4) There is generally some form of harm, friction or conflict of
interests
between the members. A good example is where a person with a physical
disability tries to do some shopping and cannot access the shop for
various reasons, and complains to the management. The management does
not
see the need to make any modifications (too expensive etc) and sees the
person as a trouble maker. The person becomes frustrated and angry with
the manager or feels marginalised in not being able to participate in
the activity. The members of the minority group (or others acting on
their behalf)
become aggressive in asserting their rights (and sometimes without
regard to the rights of the others).
We see various minority rights movements actively promoting their cause
through
community education, protests, demonstrations, riots and
civil wars. The rights of people with disability that are enshrined in
law
(Disability Service Standards etc) only came about through advocacy and
education, were people made a stand against the community. People can
also be marginalised by
their behaviour, the activities
that they participate in (taking illegal drugs, stealing etc) or
association to a particular ethnic,
cultural or religious group (street gangs, crime gangs, extreme
religious groups etc). There is a perception that
the characteristic is harmfull or dangerous to other members of the
community. Other people that have aids or a particular
contagious disease etc are
also marginalised (or even disenfranchised) to protect the other
members of the community.
5) Its too hard. People that do not have the support networks
necessary for participating in the activities of the community, or may
not be able to cope with other members
of the community become
marginalised. Members that do not have the means (through a disability
or a lack of resources - personal and social) find that it is better to
just stay at home or mix with their own kind.
People who share a characteristic that is rare in the community often
become marginalised because of a lack of resources to support their
needs. Safety and security also become more important than being a part
of the
community. A good example is where famous people are hounded by the
paparazzi, they feel victimised and powerless to the point that their
lives are at risk.
We may be
valued as a part of one community, but devalued (and marginalised) in
another community because of a particular characteristic
that is not shared with the other members of the community. Australian
aboriginals and American
Indians are
labelled
as a
minority groups not because of their numbers, but that they often have
a different (and some would say lower) lifestyle than what is
considered the norm in Australia or America.
People that have a physical or intellectual disability are also
regarded as a minority group within the community. If I went to India,
I would be considered as a part of a minority group because of my skin
colour etc. Minority groups in politics often represent the extreme
ends of
the political spectrum.
Extremely
wealthy people, royalty, film and pop stars etc can also be
labelled as a minority group in as much they become victimised and have
less control over what they can and cant do. Just think of the
President of the United States, the Queen of England or the Pope, can
they just pop down to the shops to do their laundry, buy groceries
or go down to the pub and have a few beers with the locals? Wealthy
people in Arabia, Africa, Papua New Guinea (and even in parts of
America and Europe) and other countries have to fortify their homes,
drive in conveys in armoured cars etc. They get treated differently and
loose some control over their personal lives. Successful people (senior
company executives etc) often need to watch their back (so to speak)
for fear of being knocked of the
perch (so
to speak) and being
replaced
by others. We see others that aspire to that status, are
jealous or envious of their position try to knock them down (
tall poppy
syndrome).
Groups of people can be marginalised very easily. People who smoke
tobacco are being increasingly
marginalised by the increasing restrictions in where they can smoke. We
also see P plate drivers being restricted in the type of vechicle they
are allowed to drive. People who are overweight are being refused
elective surgery, people with drug dependencies are being denied safe
controlled places to use the drug and have the opportunity to 'kick'
the habit.
Community services and organisations sometimes unintentionally
marginalise their members by:
... Providing facilities and services
(buildings, transport, staff etc) that are seperate from the community.
... Providing living, recreational, educational programs that are
within the organisation.
Over time, these activities become the
social norm, where the community
learns new values, expectations, and patterns of behaviour. The
community becomes dependant on the community services and organisations
in fulfilling their role in providing for the needs of it's members.
The community service or organisation that supports its members, may
become a community in it's own right.
The members:
... Develop the social
networks and participate in the activities of the community service or
organisation.
... Are valued within the community service or organisation.
... Feel connected to each other and are interdependent
on
each other for various reasons.
... Communicate with each other.
... Share resources etc
... Become identified as a part of the community service or
organisation.
The individual members within the
minority group are further
marginalised by the community service or organisation in the fact that
they need to fill a set of criteria or characteristics before they can
receive support. Members that do not have a support group (or can not
get to one) have no real way ot get out of their situation.
Characteristics
of a Minority Group :
"Distinguishing
physical or cultural
traits, e.g. skin color or language
Unequal Treatment and Less Power over
their lives
Involuntary membership in the group
(no personal choice)
Awareness of subordination and strong
sense of group solidarity
High In-group Marriage"
Other characteristics of a Minority
Group:
... Have a particular characteristic
that is not shared with the majority of the members in the community.
... Located at the extreme ends of
the social scale of the community in which they participate.
... There are generally a conflict of
interests between the members of
the minority group and others in the community.
... Are marginalised or even disenfranchised.
Roles, values, cultures and
institutions
(Top)
Rights and responsibilities
(Top)
Life
cycle (Top)
Communities can
also be
thought
of
as organisms that are born, grow and die.
Some communities are temporary for a specific purpose, and others are
permanent. However long their lifespan, they all have the same stages.
… Birth: A group of people discover
that they have something in common.
Define themselves as a community.
… Establishment: Chaos to order. Establish formal / informal
objectivities, hierarchies,
roles,
values etc. Identify and establish skills / resources etc.
… Action: Work towards the goals and objectives of the community.
… Maintenance: Balance the needs of its members. Communicate, share
skills / resources with its members to maintain the community.
… Self-evaluation: React to issues within and outside the community.
Develop new strategies, policies etc.
… Growth: Implement new strategies, policies etc. Develop the
membership base, formal / informal structures, skills / resources.
… Death: Can on longer function as a community for various reasons.
Once a community has been established, it generally moves between
Action, Maintenance, Self-evaluation and Growth stages until a time
comes when
it can no longer function as a community. An important part of the life
cycle is the Self-evaluation (and can happen at any time throughout the
cycle), where the community may go through a
process of chaos and change. Members jostle with each other, promote
their own
issues and agendas, form power groups and factions etc. (
M.
Scott Peck) (
Community
Life Cycle Matrix)
Characteristics
of
communities (Top)
From the above it can be seen that there are a number of
characteristics that communities share:
1) Have shared goals, beliefs,
values, cultures, institutions etc (Top)
(Characteristics)
All communities have formal / informal objectivities,
hierarchies,
goals, policies,
constitutions, unwritten laws or codes of behaviour etc.
Communities are generally very protective of their beliefs, values,
cultures, institutions etc. People that do not fit into what is
perceived as the social norm (socially acceptable) by the community are
disenfranchised.
The shared goals, beliefs, values, cultures, institutions etc:
… provide the framework for identity
and purpose:
The community needs to have a shared sense of identity and purpose. The
shared goals, beliefs, values, cultures, institutions etc are important
to maintain the integrity of the community. Just as a building will
fall apart without its internal structures, the community will fall
apart without any formal / informal structures.
… provide a set of outcomes which are measurable:
All communities need a common “cause” and direction for members to
focus on and aim for. It’s no good having a sense of purpose if there
is nothing to achieve. These outcomes also justify the community’s
existence. I go to work to feed my family, at work, I have a set of
goals to accomplish so that the company stays in business etc.
Identity and purpose:
Generally communities are modelled around a particular paradigm (or
construct) that defines the identity and purpose of the community as a
whole.
People that wear a costume or a particular item of clothing are
identified with a particular activity or cultural / ethnic group.
Athletes are identified with a particular sport, actors are identified
with the stage, TV and films, doctors / patients are identified with
hospitals,
teachers / students are identified with schools etc. Language is often
another way people identify with each other. They generally
define the type of relationship the members have with each other and
their
environment so that the members can behave accordingly.
The formal / informal objectivities, goals, policies etc provide the
core purpose of the community. They set the boundaries for the
community so members have a clear
picture of what it is about. The community needs to focus on its core
goals etc. When the community tries to do too much, it runs the risk of
not doing anything properly.
When
goals are too broad, not within the capacity of
the community, are ineffective,
weak, or compromise individual values, the community becomes unfocused
and
looses
sight of the objective,
as well as
duplicating services that may be available elsewhere. Other
issues, such as personal agendas and
politics become more important than the goal. “Goals are essential to
the other organisational tasks. People cannot organise, plan, evaluate,
manage change, or make decisions effectively without them.” [
2]
A community that has a well-defined purpose:
... Provides a common “cause” and
direction for the community as a whole.
... Provides a common “cause” and direction for members within the
community.
... Is more likely to be effective in using its resources.
... Is more likely to be effective in supporting its members.
... Is more likely to be identified when it is a part of a larger
community.
... Is more able to identify and react to events that are outside its
control.
Three broad
(and
simplistic) models (paradigms) could be described as, but not limited
to:
… Social (holistic):
is concerned with who we are, and how we socialise with each other.
Human
interaction with each other and the environment play an important part.
Families, ethnic or social groups, hobby clubs are
all about how the members interact with
each other and how the
environment affects the members as a group. Members also have the
opportunity to change their own environment to their own needs without
affecting the community as a whole. The purpose (objectivities, goals,
policies etc) of the community are less formal with less defined roles.
… Professional (specialised / holistic): is
concerned with providing an environment that accommodates the
particular profession or the activity of the profession (educational
/ medical / business). The members
have to fit in to structured environments that are less accommodating
to the needs of individual members and how they interact with each
other. Work places, schools, churches, hospitals,
boarding houses, nursing homes (even suburbs) are about groups of
people, and how the
person fits into
the
environment rather than how
the environment fits into the person. The purpose (objectivities,
goals, policies etc) of the community are formal with clearly defined
roles for its members. Community services are often built around the
professional model, where
staff or volunteers are employed by the service to support the service
users within the goals, values etc of the service provider. Resords are
kept on budgets, expenses, care plans, progress notes, medical
histories etc.
… Scientific / economic (specialised): is
concerned
with research, facts and figures. Focus is on objective systematic
enquiry of
objects, patterns of behaviour, time and resources, balance sheets
and budgets, efficiencies of scale, opportunity cost etc. Human
interaction
with each other and the environment is seen as a system or numbers on a
page. The purpose (objectivities, goals, policies etc) and the roles of
the community and its members are studied and assessed according to a
set of criteria.
The three paradigms and how
they relate to the identity and purpose of the community.
Communities are generally a mixture
of the three types (Social,
Professional and Scientific). Social groups need to have the freedom to
socialise, but also need some order and structure to coordinate
activities and work within budgets
etc. Work places etc need formal structures and
environments to achieve the desired goals, but, there also needs to be
some flexibility
to allow for individual needs. Scientific communities
study, measure and analyse the
behaviour, performance and the
environment of the individual and the group, but, they also need to
have
some flexibility
to allow for individual needs.
The
least restrictive environment often refers to adapting the environment
to suit all members, so that they have an opportunity to participate in
activities, share experiences and be a part of their community. How the
environment is adapted will depend on it's particular construct
(social, professional or scientific), the amount of adaptation that is
needed to suite all members and how the members are advantaged or
disadvantaged through the adaption.
An example of this is in a classroom environment, where a person has
a
intellectual or physical disability. The adaption is the inclusion of
an aide to assist the person has a intellectual or physical disability.
How the adaption advantages or
disadvantages the others depends on the overall type and the quality of
the
activities, the opportunity
to participate in
the activities, share experiences and be a part of their community.
Set of outcomes which are
measurable:
While the community has a set of goals and objectives, the members
also
have their own defined goals and objectives which complement and
support the goals and objectives of the community. The community is
also dependant on the members achieving their own
goals and objectives, in achieving it's (the community’s) own goals and
objectives.
All communities measure their success or failure (outcomes) against
these goals and objectives. These outcomes provide a sense of
achievement (or loss) for the community as a whole as well as the
members of the
community, and can be measured in any number of ways. Families need to
pay the bills, workers need to achieve targets, doctors need to heal
the sick etc. Two broad types of outcomes can be described as:
Objective outcomes (community)
... Are measured scientifically and
economically
... Facts and figures, targets etc
... Physical rewards
... Tools and equipment
... Facilities
Objective outcomes are tangible in the
sense that they can be seen,
touched and measured by all members within the community as well as
others outside the community.
Subjective outcomes (members)
... Are measured as benefits
... Facts and figures, targets etc
... Physical rewards
... Skills / knowledge etc
... Emotional
... Spiritual
Subjective outcomes are intangible in
the sense that they reflect the
member’s feelings, experiences and gains through achieving the goals
and objectives. The outcomes will have different effects on the members
according to their expectations, what their role was and how much they
were changed (learned new skills / knowledge, new life experiences, new
relationships etc).
Outcomes can be community orientated (objective / scientific), member
orientated
(subjective / social) or a mixture of both:
Shows the relationship between
the community / members / outcomes.
Using the example of the football ground at the beginning, it can be
seen that there are two distinct outcomes:
1) Objective: The football ground has
been built. It can be seen and touched.
2) Subjective: The football ground is a symbol of accomplishment and
pride within the football community, in providing a valued resource for
it's members and can be shared with other communities. But what about
the other communities that are involved? Do they have the same feelings
as the football community?
2) Have ownership of their members (Top)
(Characteristics)
All members share a common cause and have a sense of identity. A sense
of belonging is created where the members are connected to, and
interact with each other.
Just as the members of the community have ownership of their lives and
property, the community has ownership of its members and property
through the various mechanisms put in place by the community.
The community has ownership of its members through:
... May involve some formal / informal
induction
or rite of passage
... Commitment: Members have a sense of
obligation towards the community.
... Loyalty: Members give up a certain amount personal autonomy for the
greater good.
... Respect: Members have respect for each other.
... Responsibility: Members take on responsibilities (and feel
responsible for others) within the community.
... Safety and security: Members feel that they can call on other
members in times of need or when threatened.
... Resources: Community resources are owned by the community on behalf
of its members. Personal resources are sometimes shared between the
members.
... All members have the opportunity to participate in the activities
of the community.
Like a machine with a number of moving parts, the community becomes a
single unit where individual members become interdependent on each
other and act in harmony with each other in working towards the common
goal.
Just as doctors become protective of their patients (in the sense that
they develop a relationship and have their records and history),
communities can become protective of their members.
3) Provide valued roles for their
members (Top)
(Characteristics)
Roles are often unconsciously placed on ourselves and others, depending
on the situation. These roles can enhance or diminish
(disadvantage) our own (and others)
identity
within the community. The values that are placed on a particular role
(father, mother, friend, colleague, partner, equal etc) are determined
by the person's relationship to the other members of the
community, as well as their relationship to the community as a whole.
It is possible for any person to be
disadvantaged for any reason in any community. Some studies were done
with school children a few years ago where the class was divided into
groups (
Blue eyes Brown eyes).
The results clearly showed that people
become disadvantaged quite easily. Just as Muslems were targeted a few
years ago because they may be terrorists, all Muslems became
disadvantaged. The same thing happened to the Jews and any number of
other groups of people. The same thing can happen in any community. If
I wear my P.J's to work (which has happened in America) I am seen as
someone who is different. In some communities a particular
characteristic can be an advantage. While I was travelling around the
Northern Territory I certianily felt like a second class person in the
shops. I spent some time living in an Aboriginal community and it took
a while to become accepted as a part of their community. The Blind and
Deaf also have their own communities. A person may be valued as a
son or daughter, singer, intellectual or a friend and colleague in one
community, yet
have a characteristic that would diminish the person's identity
within another community.
Any
person that has a particular
characteristic that disadvantages
their ability to fulfil their
needs, actively partake in the normal
activities
of their community, or
devalues their identity within their
community.
These roles are valued or devalued according to:
... How the particular role is valued
or devalued in the community (in
a sense that the community
would suffer as a result of members not being able to fulfil those
roles).
... What the person brings to the
community.
... How the person interacts with other members.
1) Community valued roles: (How the particular role is valued or
devalued in the community)
... An activity or behaviour that is
provided on behalf of the community.
The community values services such as providing roads, electricity,
parks and gardens and even delivering the morning paper etc. Devalued
roles would be parking inspectors, taxation inspectors etc.
... Role models.
Robert
K. Merton introduced the term "role model", where members
value a
particular activity or behaviour.
“Merton says that individuals compare themselves with "reference
groups" of people who occupy the social role to which the individual
aspires.[
3]
The term has passed into general use to mean any "person
who serves as an example, whose behaviour is emulated by
others".[
4]”
(
Wikipedia)
Learned helplessness generations learn from their peers,
2) Professional / non-professional
valued roles: (What the person
brings to the
community)
Communities often have two or more
groups, who have defined roles that bring order to the community. These
roles are valued in the sense that the groups are interdependent on
each other, not that one group has control over the other (although
this does happen), but that a group cannot exist without the other
groups. Teachers could not exist without students, doctors could not
exist without patients, shops could not exist without customers etc.
3) Personally valued roles: (How the person interacts with other
members)
Perhaps the most important, as these
define our personal relationships
to each other. How we feel about others can be comlpex,
and depends on our own experiences, how well we know the person as well
as our experiences with the person. We may value the person in the role
of a teacher or a policeman, but would never value the person's
friendship. Alternatively, we may value the person's friendship
regardless of who they are or what they do. Being valued as a part of
their own community gives a person a sense of belonging.
There is a sense of worth or value in
the person, whatever the other roles are. A mother, for example would
highly value her son or daughter regardless of their disability, or
what they have done. The son or daughter brings a sense of fulfilment
to her life.
Social
Role Valorisation (SRV) is designed to overcome the initial
barriers that
disadvantaged people have in developing relationships in different
communities, so that they have an opportunity to
participate
in
the activities and share experiences and be a part of those
communities. SRV has made us aware that disadvantaged people
need the same opportunities to fulfill their needs, develop
relationships and pariticipate in activities that are a normal part of
their community. In essence,
SRV
says; "These people are devalued, lets make them valued".
Alternatively, by providing valued roles to all members of the
community, they have an opportunity to actively participate in a
positive way;
... all members of the community are
included
... individuals are valued as a part of
the community
... their own identities are enhance in being a part of the process
... individual differences (characteristics) become less important when
all members are working towards a common goal.
German sociologist
Ferdinand Tönnies refers to
relationships as being a mix of Gemeinschaft and
Gesellschaft. We all place different values on our relationships to
others within the community. These values are determined by:
... How we see ourselves
We
often act out various roles (wear different hats) according to our
relationship to the others in the group Eg: father, boss, kitchen hand
etc.
Often when people move from one community to another, they bring
their
own values, customs etc with them, and they wonder why everyone is
against them. They see the the local values, customs as a personal
insult. Instead of fitting into the new community they see themselves
as being victimised by its members. People that are devalued become
conditioned to being treated as such (low self esteem etc), and when
they are placed in an environment that does not devalue them, they
either behave as if they were devalued, or overcompensate and act out a
fantisy to prove to themselves and others that they are equals.
... How we see others
We all learn how to treat others from
our peers (parents, brothers,
sisters and significant others). How we were treated ourselves, or how
we see others treating others, is sometimes the only guide we have in
developing relationships (
Social
Learning Theory). We often expect others to behave in a
certain way. When confronted with something new, or outside our
experience, we can try different stratergies. T.V., radio, newspapers
and magazines play a major role in influencing our behaviour and how we
value others. SRV tells us that we should value others for who they
are, not according to the particular characteristic they have.
The values that we assign to others are also generally determined by
the relationship we have with the person:
Personal communities (private, personal, and public)
By association or behaviour which is not the normal association or
behaviour of the person
... How others see us
We often behave as others see us and
treat us (value us) (
Self-Fulfilling
Prophecy). We may have a particular characteristic that is
offensive or different than the norm and therefor we will be treated
differently.
... How others see others
Social conventions (
norms,
influence,
conformity,
peer
preasure) also contribute to the values, roles and expectations we
place on others. We all treat each other differently according to the
the environment we are in. At the pub a person may be seen as a trouble
maker who picks fights
At work, for example, I may value a person highly, but
because I am not looking after the person, I will allow others to
devalue the person in the way they look after the person, because of
the:
... work culture and environment: where
I may be seen as a trouble
maker if I complain about the the way other staff look after the
residents, I have
my own work
to do and don't interfere, there is no
consistancy of care between permanent staff that know the residents and
others that do not know the residents, there is a set routine in the
work place that
places restrictions on what I can and cant do,
... management hierarchy, care plans etc: there are conflicts in what
management and
staff see as most appropriate care,
... way we see others behaving (patronising, etc) towards a
person and assume that it is normal to treat the person that way.
These roles can be both objective (how the role is attributed to the
person) and subjective (how the role is valued by the person):
... objective (community valued roles)
... subjective (personally valued roles)
Personal communities:
The values that we assign to others
4) Communicate effectively with
their members (Top)
(Characteristics)
The community needs to be able to communicate with its members in order
to achieve its goals.
The members communicate with each other to share thoughts, feelings,
experiences, skills and knowledge. Clear thinking and expression of
thoughts is essential to effective communication.
The community also needs to communicate with others outside the
community. To function effectively as a community, the community needs
to be able to respond to events that are outside the community and have
an impact on the community.
“Communication is the process of exchanging information, beliefs and
feelings among people; it may be oral, written, or nonverbal.
Information may travel up, down, or horizontally.” [
5]
Oral communication:
The most common form.
Written communication:
People communicate using words, signs,
pictures etc.
Nonverbal communication:
The most misunderstood form of
communication. All behaviour is communication. When we talk to someone
or write to someone we also convey messages in our behaviour (gestures
etc) to reinforce the communication. When there is no verbal or written
communication associated with the
behaviour, the respondent has to interpret the behaviour into something
that can be made sense of. Mostly the message is obvious but sometimes
the message does not get through.
A good example:
Person A is shouting and screaming.
Person B may think:
Person A is shouting and screaming because the person happy.
Person A is shouting and screaming because the person is upset, angry
or in pain.
Person A is shouting and screaming at me and needs to be disciplined.
Person A is shouting and screaming to draw attention to some event (the
place is on fire etc).
The main function of communication is to make decisions. The
effectiveness of the community is dependent upon the quality of the
decisions, and the quality of the decisions is dependent upon the
quality of the communication between its members. Communication and
decision making involve the exchange of facts, ideas, and opinions.
Winn & Guditus [
5] describe communication, as
well as decision
making, as essential to all other functions such as planning,
organising, coordinating, goal setting, directing, evaluating, managing
conflict, and managing change.
For a community to be able to effectively communicate to each other,
there needs to be a code, or set of principles. Anderson [
6]
lists some
examples of productive behaviours.
... All members participate and freely
express themselves
... Members are listened to and receive
empathic responses
... Supporting and having respect for each other
... Treating everyone equally, whilst valuing difference eg. Gender
... Taking time to appreciate one another’s point of view
... Aiming for mutual understanding
... Respecting the knowledge and experience each brings to the task
... Being non-judgemental / avoiding negative criticism
... Being open to learning
5) Can depend on their own resources (Top) (Characteristics)
Data
collection and information
... Understanding the services and
service processes
... Identify existing resources in the community
... Identify resources not in the community
... Adequate and appropriate service delivery strategies and mechanisms
in place
... Innovating
An available source of wealth that can be drawn upon when needed.
The community needs to have resources that it can depend on in order to
achieve its goals.
Inventory and control of resources
... The most important resources are
the members themselves. Members bring their own resources
(experiences, skills,
knowledge, tools, equipment etc) to the community.
... Tools and equipment
... Facilities
... Natural resources
Allows for reliable, effective and efficient use of the resources.
Resources can be quickly distributed and used where necessary.
Resources that are not used can be identified.
6) Balance their own needs (Top) (Characteristics)
Effective services
... Understanding the changing internal
environments and how they relate to the community
... Involving all members
... Effective communication between all members
... Understanding what members need
... Aware of relevant research and the evidence base for practice
... Data gathering, analysis and reporting mechanisms
... Informed decision making processes
... Coordinating internal and external services
The
community needs to identify the needs of its
members and distribute the resources in the most effective way so that
the
members can fulfil their roles. These needs are often prioritised
according to
available resources in meeting those needs and who will benefit most.
Members
have different needs within the community.
Often,
there are a number of unresolved issues in the community that are not
necessarily
related to each other (politics, personal agendas, interest groups
etc). These issues may lie simmering under the surface and are
generally not
dealt with
until a
crises mobilises the community (that the whole community is
threatened
in a sense
that the
community will not be able to function as a whole until the issue has
been
resolved, eg the roads need fixing, power and gas shortages, strikes
for more
wages etc). Even then, where issues do not threaten the community as a
whole,
we see sub-groups (sub-communities) forming within the community that
feel that
they do not share some of the characteristics of the community of which
they
are a part of. Where there is no visible threat to the community as a
whole,
members become complacent and prefer to leave the status quo.
Individual
members (or groups) need to motivate and mobilise (create a sense of
urgency or
importance within) the community to achieve a desired outcome.
7) Can share and draw on skills /
resources where needed
(Top) (Characteristics)
Well connected with other communities and services
... Understanding the changing external
environments and how they relate to the community
... Good working relationships with other communities and services
... Identify resources that are duplicated
... Identify resources that can be shared
... Identify resources that are not available within the community
... Identify resources that are not practical for the community to keep
within the community.
... Adequate and appropriate service delivery strategies and mechanisms
in place
... Informed decision making processes
The community needs to identify skills / resources that are unique
to the community so that they can be used effectively.
The community needs to identify skills / resources that are not within
the community and draw on those skills / resources where necessary.
The community can share skills / resources where necessary.
Strengths
and weaknesses
Boundaries
Just as people interact with each other, communities interact with each
other, and it is up to the community to determine how it works towards
achieving its desired goals and objectives. Communities need to be able
to react to events outside their control and have an impact on the
community. They need to balance their own needs and
resources with
the
needs and
resources of
the wider community that they are a part of.
Community
empowerment
(Top)
The community
takes
ownership
Self
direction
Informed decisions
Communities make mistakes. It is important for communities to to learn
from their own experiences and grow
Societies
and a social conscience
(Top)
awaerness of the community's role and the relationships with other
communities within society (the wider community)
extensions of the community
the social systems within the community
Social rights and responsibilities / Community rights and
responsibilities
[
1] Fisher, B.A., and Ellis, D.G. (1990, p. 14)
Small Group Decision
Making, Communication and
the Group
Process,
Third edition. USA: College
Composition Unit.
[
2] Wynn, R., and Guditus, C.W. (1984, p.128)
Team Management:
Leadership by Consensus.
USA: Charles E. Merril Publishing Company
[
5] Wynn, R., and Guditus, C.W. (1984, p.72)
Team Management:
Leadership by Consensus.
USA: Charles E. Merril Publishing Company
[
6] Anderson, M. (1998d), (class handout).
Ground Rules For Teams.
Perth Western
Australia: Edith Cowan University.
